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COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT 








THE LADDER OF CLOUDS 










CHILDREN'S SCIENCE SERIES 


THE 

LADDER OF 
CLOUDS 

COMPILED AND WRITTEN BY THE 
FEDERAL WRITERS’ PROJECT 
WORK PROJECTS ADMINISTRATION 
COMMONWEALTH OF PENNSYLVANIA 


—JUNIOR PRESS BOOKS — 

ALB ERTXWHITMAN 

& 4C0 

CHICAGO 1939 






' ci CJ& 

Federal Works Agency v 3 ^ 
Work Projects Administration 
F. C. Harrington, Commissioner 
Florence Kerr, Assistant Commissioner 
J. D. Newsom, Director of the Federal 
Writers' Project 


Sponsored and copyrighted, 1939, by Division of Extension Education, 
Board of Public Education, Philadelphia 


PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OP AMERICA 
BT J. J. LITTLE & IVES COMPANY, NEW YORK 

©Clft A 31 4380 



NOTE 

The Ladder of Clouds is the first in a series of children's 
science books prepared by the Federal Writers' Project 
of Pennsylvania. 

This book was written by John F. Hausmann, Jr. under 
the supervision of Paul Comly French, State Director, and 
George B. Reeves, Assistant State Director, all of whom 
resigned before publication. 

The illustrations are by Ethelbert Brown and the cover 
design by David Cain, staff artists. 

Conrad C. Lesley 
Acting State Director 



“Cumulus clouds fill the sky with domes and turrets.” 













Ladder of Clouds 


John lay in the meadow in the late 
afternoon. His big brother Ned lay be¬ 
side him. 

Ned and John looked up at the clouds. 
The clouds formed and melted. 

"Look at the billowy clouds and at the 
thin wispy clouds,” John said. 

As they looked at the different clouds, 
the two boys saw that the thin, wispy 
clouds moved in one direction. The 
billowy clouds moved in the other 
direction. 


9 


children’s science series 


Ned was studying about nature in col¬ 
lege and John was much interested. He 
liked to have his big brother tell him 
about the things he had learned at college. 

"As you see, there are many different 
kinds of clouds,” Ned said. "Each form 
is different. There are many kinds of 
waters. There are rivers, lakes, and 
oceans. There are thin clouds. There 
are high, rolling clouds. There are 
clouds that spread across the sky. These 
many types of clouds always float in 
their own special part of the sky. 

"The thin, wispy clouds float high in 
the sky. The billowy clouds float low in 
sky. There are many different kinds of 
clouds that float between these low bil¬ 
lowy clouds and the high, thin, wispy 
clouds. 


10 




“The golden rays of the sun stream out in long, wide 

BANDS FROM A BROKEN CLOUD.” 








children’s science series 


"People now sail through the sky in 
airplanes,” Ned continued. "They find 
there are many different pathways in the 
sky.” 

Just then they saw an airplane in the 
sky. It flew like a bird, up, up into the 
sky. The sun shone through the clouds. 
The people in the airplane were looking 
down upon the soft billowy clouds. They 
were looking down upon a world of clouds. 
John thought that he, too, would like to 
look down upon a world of clouds. 

Ned rose, brushing the grass from his 
trousers and saying, "Let us go in the 
house. I have pictures of the different 
kinds of clouds.” 

When they reached the house Ned said 
to John, "Before seeing the pictures we 
will first go into the kitchen.” 

12 



THE LADDER OF CLOUDS 


John followed, wondering what Ned 
would show him there. 

In the kitchen there was a kettle on 
the stove. The water in the kettle was 
boiling. Steam came out of the spout 
and mixed with the air. When it mixed 
with the air it became white and rolling 
and then it could be seen. This steam 
looked like small clouds in the air. 

"See how the steam rises and melts in 
the air,” Ned pointed out to John. "That 
is just what happens to the clouds in the 
sky. The clouds form and they melt 
away.” 

"What happens to the water in the 
teakettle when the water boils?” John 
asked Ned. Ned lifted the cover. They 
looked into the kettle. They had to keep 
their faces away from the steam, for the 
13 



children’s science series 


steam might burn them. They saw that 
the water bubbled and jumped around. 

"How do the bubbles turn into steam?” 
John questioned. 

"Watch the bubbles,” Ned said. "See 
how they become crowded in the kettle. 
They have no more room in the kettle, 
and they have to come out. They finally 
rise out of the spout. 



“ The water particles bunch together. And we have mist.” 







THE LADDER OF CLOUDS 


"These bubbles coming out of the spout 
do not look like the bubbles in the kettle. 
They have been changed into small water 
particles. These small water particles 
can hardly be seen. The air outside the 
kettle is cold. The cold makes the tiny 
drops of water particles come together. 
As they come together they look thick 
and white. That is steam. 

"We cannot see the steam until it 
mixes with the air and then it is called 
Vapor. 

"Imagine that you have a microscope 
stronger than any microscope that has 
ever been made. If you would look 
through this microscope you would see 
that the air is made up of thousands of 
gas and dust particles.” 


15 



children’s science series 


Ned continued, "The water particles 
have to push in amongst all those other 
particles. The air particles are colder 
than the steam or mist. When air is 
cold it is heavy. The cold, heavy air 
presses on the steam and breaks it up. 
The steam becomes broken up into single 
water particles. 

"Each single water particle rests on a 
dust particle. The dust particles with 
the water particles on them float around 
in the air. The water particles are so 
small they cannot be seen. The steam 
has disappeared. We say the steam dis¬ 
solved in the air. 

"See,” Ned said, turning to the window 
and pointing to the sky. "That is just 
what happens to a cloud in the sky when 
the cloud melts away. 

16 



THE LADDER OF CLOUDS 


'The same thing that happens to the 
water in the kettle happens to all water. 
When water gets warm, the water parti¬ 
cles on top get excited and jump like 
flying fish into the air. Some water 
particles fall back into the water. Other 
particles remain to float around in the air. 

"Wherever there is water, the water 
particles rise into the air. We see wet 
clothes. As the clothes dry the water 
particles rise into the air. There is a 
garden hose spraying the lawn. The 
water on the lawn will become warmed. 
The water particles will rise into the air. 
Even the drops of sweat on your forehead 
will change to water particles. Anything 
at all that is water can evaporate or 
melt away.” 

"Is the dew that we find on the flowers 
17 



children’s science series 


in the morning a kind of water?” John 
asked. 

"Yes,” answered Ned, "and it is formed 
in an unusual manner. There is no rain. 
Nothing falls from the sky. First the 
grass and bushes and flowers are dry. 
Then when the sun goes down they 
become covered with dew. When the 
sun goes down the ground becomes 
cooled off. Then the air next to the 
ground becomes cooled off. The cool 
air drops its water particles. 

"There are three things we must re¬ 
member. First, cold air moves slower 
than warm air. Second, because the cold 
air moves slowly, it cannot carry so much 
water. Third, the cold air must drop some 
of its water particles. That is the way 
dew forms.” 


18 



THE LADDER OP CLOUDS 


"What happens to the dew?” John 
asked. 

"The grass and flowers drink some of 
the dew,” Ned explained, "but still some 
of the dew is left. When the sun comes 
out we can see the dew sparkle on the 
ground. The sun warms the air. The 
water particles jump out of the dew drop¬ 
lets. Back fly the particles into the air. 
And again the water particles float 
around unseen. This has been happen¬ 
ing year in and year out, since the begin¬ 
ning of the world. Always the dew 
formed and the sun dried it.” 

John listened filled with wonder as 
Ned continued. 

"It takes millions of water particles 
to make a cloud. Where do those mil¬ 
lions of particles come from? The water 
19 




“Sometimes they look very much like the waves we see at 

THE SEASHORE.” 























THE LADDER OF CLOUDS 


particles jumping out of the ocean would 
make the ocean dry in about two thou¬ 
sand years. But the rain falls from the 
clouds. The rain waters rush back into 
streams and rivers. The streams and 
rivers flow back into the ocean. Out 
jump the particles from the ocean. Again 
the particles dance in the sunlight un-. 
seen.” 

"What happens to the particles when 
night falls?” John asked Ned. 

"When the sun goes down in the even¬ 
ing,” Ned answered, "the wind lifts these 
water particles that dance over the ocean. 
The wind sweeps them away. Laden 
with the water particles the wind comes 
to the land. The ground is cool and it 
has been cooling the night air. The 
wind rushing in with all these water 
21 



children’s science series 


particles is now cooled off. The wind 
drops some of the water particles. The 
water particles bunch together. And we 
have mist.” Ned paused in his talk. 

"Oh, I saw the mist last week. I could 
hardly see the trees or the houses across 
the street,” John said. 

"Yes,” Ned answered. "Then the sun 
comes out and breaks the mist up again. 
In time all these water particles in the 
air make the clouds.” 

"But, how do they become clouds?” 
John wondered. 

'Heat is the answer,” Ned replied. 
"The sun warms the air. The warm air 
is very active. Now, if we could look 
through that powerful microscope we 
would see that the water particles and 
other particles bounce around. The 
22 



THE LADDER OF CLOUDS 


water particles are lighter than the air 
particles. They rise just as a balloon. 

''The water particles go up and up. 
The air is colder higher up. The cold 
presses about the water particles. They 
crowd together and form clouds. We saw 
how the clouds melted in the sky. The 
clouds formed and melted. So we know 
that not all clouds become rain clouds.” 

"I have seen the rain clouds many 
times before a shower,” John told Ned, 
"and I have often wondered what makes 
the rain.” 

"It is a cold wind that makes rain,” 
explained Ned. "The cold wind cools the 
warmed-up air. When the warmed-up 
air with the water particles is cooled 
suddenly then clouds of heavy droplets 
form. 


23 




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“The clouds float in their special spaces.” 
















THE LADDER OF CLOUDS 


"Rain comes down. The rain comes 
down sometimes in smaller, sometimes 
in larger drops. But the rain drops are 
never larger than the thickness of a lead 
pencil. If the raindrops are larger in 
size, they blow up into pieces. They 
burst like balloons. 

"Now,” said Ned, "let us take an 
imaginary trip. We sail up, up, up, 
and the higher we go the colder it gets. 
The air stops getting colder about seven 
miles above the sea level. This is the 
end of the Cloud World. 

"The air above the seven-mile level is 
always the same and never changes. 
The sky is divided into two parts. The 
lower part is the Cloud World where the 
clouds float. The upper part is the air 
above it. There in the upper part, the 
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air goes on and on and on until it comes 
to the Cloud World of another planet. 
Above the clouds the air is always the 
same and never changes. 

"In the Cloud World the warmed-up 
particles rise easily. The air gets colder 
the higher up it is. The warmed-up 
particles rise and rise in this cold air. 
They rise easily because the water parti¬ 
cles are lighter than the cold air above 
them. 

"But this cannot happen in the air 
above the Cloud World. Here the air is 
always the same. Where the air is al¬ 
ways the same the water particles spread 
out instead of rising. Also, no dust parti¬ 
cles can rise in this air above the Cloud 
World. It is the many small dust parti¬ 
cles that catch the sun’s short rays. 

28 



THE LADDER OF CLOUDS 


"The dust particles make our beautiful 
light blue skies. In this air where there 
is no dust, the sky overhead is dark like 
the midnight sky. In this midnight sky 
the stars can be seen all day and all night 
long. It is always night in this air. 

"In the Cloud World below, the clouds 
do not move any which way. The clouds 
float in their special spaces. The 
warmed particles rise on and on. The 
water particles stop only when they come 
to a Friendly Level. Only then do the 
water particles come together and form 
a cloud. Some particles form low clouds, 
others form higher clouds, and others 
form clouds near the end of the Cloud 
World. These water particles form 
clouds in the icy cold of the top of the 
Cloud World.” 


29 




Clouds shade the earth from the sun, like parasols. 

"Why do we have clouds?” John asked. 
"Do they have anything to do with us 
down here on the earth?” 

"Clouds are very important to every¬ 
body,” Ned explained. "If it were not 
for the clouds we would have no food and 
the earth would be so hot that we could 
not live upon it. 


30 











THE LADDER OF CLOUDS 


"The clouds in the sky serve as screens 
to us. The clouds come between the 
earth and the sky. If there were no 
clouds there would be no green growing 
things. The heat of the sun’s rays would 
shrivel and burn the plants and trees. 
The meadows and fields would be parched 
and dry. 

"The clouds make the world beautiful. 
They fill the heavens with soft colors and 
shapes. The cloud mists are soft veils 
among the mountain tops. 

"At night the clouds are like blankets 
tucking in the warmth. 

"Now, let us look at some pictures of 
clouds,” Ned said, "since we have 
finished the story of how clouds reach 
the sky.” 

Ned laid out his pictures. He laid 
31 



children’s science series 


them one under the other like the rungs 
of a ladder. 

"The clouds are divided into three 
groups. 

“CIRRUS 
“CUMULUS 
“LOW CUMULUS” 

"Tell me what those names mean,” 
John asked Ned, "and I will write them 
down in my memory book.” 

"The highest are the Cirrus clouds,” 
replied Ned. "They are the thin wispy 
clouds. They are made up of tiny pieces 
of ice. These ice pieces are so very fine 
that perhaps dainty fairies might use 
them for needles! 

"Sometimes the Cirrus clouds look like 
long fibers. People call them mare’s 
tails. 


32 



THE LADDER OF CLOUDS 


"Sometimes these strands bunch up 
and they look like long, soft, white 
feathers. 

"The Low Cirrus forms just below it. 
It is a light thin sheet of clouds. Some 
people call it the Cirrus Haze. 

"The Low Cirrus sheet often forms 
wide rings around the sun and the moon. 
These rings are called halos. 



Some Cirrus clouds are called “mare’s tails.” 







Often fleecy clouds remind us of a flock of sheep. 


"Now, we come to the speckled and 
mackerel skies, the Cirrus Cumulus 
clouds. 

"The Cirrus Cumulus clouds are dainty 
and delicate and white. They have hard¬ 
ly any shadows. Often they form in 
lines. Many times they form in waves.” 

"What makes them form in waves?” 









THE LADDER OF CLOUDS 


John wondered aloud. "Do they look 
like ocean waves?” he asked. 

"Sometimes they look very much like 
the waves we see at the seashore,” 
answered Ned. "And they form in waves 
because the currents of air pass one 
another. The currents of air passing 
one another do not flow all alike. Some 
flow faster. Some flow slower. As those 
currents of air flow they set up waves. 
All thin clouds may form in waves. 

"The High Cumulus are the highest 
of the Cumulus clouds. They gather 
about two miles up in the air. They 
are the most beautiful of all clouds. They 
form the dappled skies. 

"The dappled skies stretch across the 
sky in a host of small and medium-sized 
patches. Parts are gleaming white and 
35 



children’s science series 


parts are softly shadowed. You can tell 
the High Cumuli from the Cirro Cumuli 
by the shadows. 

"The Cumulus clouds are the billowy 
clouds. The Cumulus clouds often turn 
into storm clouds. If the Cumulus clouds 
form in the afternoon, the rest of the 
day will be fair. These billowy clouds 
fill the sky with domes and with turrets. 

"If the Cumulus clouds form in the 
morning they may become a Cumulus 
Nimbus cloud. The base of these Cumu¬ 
lus clouds rests on a thick grey cloud. 
It is a dark flat Nimbus cloud. The 
Nimbus cloud is a rain cloud. From 
this base showers of rain fall. Often 
hail falls. 

"Many times the Cumulus Nimbus 
clouds rush out of their places. They 

36 



THE LADDER OF CLOUDS 


climb higher and higher till they reach 
the roof of the Cloud World. Lightning 
flashes from these clouds. 

"The Low Cumulus clouds are rolls of 
dark clouds. Many times in the winter 
they cover the whole sky. 

"The Low Cumulus rolls break up 
with a change of weather. They have a 
torn, ragged look and make striking 
sunsets. 

"The shining sky glows behind them. 
These clouds are lower clouds and fly 
from a quarter to one and a quarter miles 
above the earth. 

"The tornado, like a fierce dragon of 
olden times, rushes out of a thick Nimbus. 
Its black, swirling tail lashes the earth. 
Its tail is cloud and dust. The tornado is 
like a tube. The tornado sucks up trees, 
37 



children’s science series 


houses, people, and everything that is in 
its way.” 

"I have seen pictures in the newspapers 
of the damage that a tornado does,” John 
told his brother. "How does it do such 
terrible things?” 

"We call the tornado one of Mother 
Nature’s freaks,” Ned continued. "It 
acts just like a vacuum cleaner. The 
vacuum cleaner sucks up dust and small 
wisps of stuff. The tornado moves in a 
circular motion. Streams of hot air rush 
in on every side. The hot air takes the 
place of the air which is rising. It is a 
terrible swirl of rising air. Once it forms 
this terrible swirl it may last for only a 
few minutes or it may last for three or 
four hours. 

"At sunrise and at sunset the clouds 

38 



“The tornado sucks up trees, houses, people, and every¬ 
thing THAT IS IN ITS WAY.” 


glow like shining veils. They crowd 
around the sun as if they were singing 
songs of thanks to it. It was the sun 
that turned them into water particles. 
It was the sun that lifted them into the 
sky. Now, they group about the sun in 
the richest colors.” 

"Where do all of the beautiful colors 
39 






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“AT sunrise and sunset the clouds glow like shining veils. 





























THE LADDER OF CLOUDS 


in the sunset come from?” John asked 
his brother. "I have seen sunsets that 
had so many colors that I could not count 
them all.” 

Ned explained, "It is Nature’s three 
smallest things which make the glowing 
sunsets and the soft pearly skies. First 
there are the short light waves which 
later disappear; second the dust particles; 
third the water particles. 

"The very short waves of sunlight 
would be just white light. They would 
be white light but for the very, very 
small dust particles. The dust particles 
dance in these white rays. The dust 
particles sift out the many colors that 
make up the white light. The water 
particles separate the colors from violet 
to red. 


41 



children’s science series 


’'We would not see the colors if it were 
not for the tiny water droplets in the 
clouds. The water droplets catch the 
colors. They hold them for us to see. 
The more dust there is the richer are the 
colors — gold and rose and red like fire. 

"The sunburst is the most wonderful 
of all sunsets. The golden rays of the 
sun stream out in long, wide bands from 
a broken cloud. 

"Even more wonderful than the sun¬ 
burst is the rainbow. It arches across 
the sky. Purple, yellow, and red — it 
shimmers through the rain. It is seen 
only when you look away from the sun. 
Sometimes there is a double rainbow and 
the red and the purple change places. 

"The rainbow glowing in the sky is not 
a solid thing like a tree or house. The 
42 



THE LADDER OF CLOUDS 


different rays of light make the rainbow. 
Like a looking glass, the raindrops catch 
these colors, then throw these lights back 
into other raindrops.” 

"Is there really a pot of gold at the end 
of the rainbow?” John asked Ned. "If 
there is, when I grow to be a man, I am 
going to try to find it.” 



The rainbow is seen only when you look away from the sun. 

43 







children’s science series 


"That is only a fairy story,” laughed 
Ned. "People like to say that there is 
a pot of gold buried where the end of the 
rainbow seems to touch the earth. There 
is not any buried gold and the rainbow 
does not touch the earth, but more 
wonderful than gold are the sun, air, 
clouds, and rain. 

"All of these things help to make the 
rainbow and all of these things make the 
earth a green living thing.” 


44 


























♦ 

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